Clinical Applications of the History of Medicine in Muslim-Majority Nations.

Since the early twentieth century, a number of physicians and professional historians have argued for the integration of the history of medicine into both medical education and clinical practice. After the supplanting of the humoral model of medicine in favor of the germ theory of disease in the late nineteenth century, medical school administrators have repeatedly asked medical historians for their rationale for studying "outdated science" in medical training programs beyond antiquarianism and knowledge for knowledge's sake. However, a number of arguments can be adduced for the use and relevance of the history of medicine, including the observations that history: 1) provides examples of inspiring or highly ethical individuals who can serve as role models in practitioner identity formation; 2) helps to develop critical analytical skills and other modes of humanistic thought and behavior directly relevant to patient care (e.g., empathy); 3) promotes culturally-competent care, since history informs culture; 4) encourages inquiry into the sociocultural factors that affect the development of modern medical ecosystems; 5) provides a philosophical tradition for critiquing ethics in the medical profession. This contribution specifically traces the potential uses of Islamic medical history in the clinic and medical schools in Muslim-majority countries, primarily in the Middle East.

Tayadhuq (Theodocus/Théodoros) and his role in the formation of Islamic medicine.

Tayadhuq, also known as Theodocus/Théodoros (d. early 8th century AD), was educated in the Gondes̲h̲apur School and served the Sassanid kings. During this period, he contacted the Umayyad court and became the physician of Hajjaj ibn Yusuf (d. 715 AD), the general governor of the Eastern regions of the caliphate. In addition to his knowledge on the Sassanid scientific tradition, Tayadhuq had a significant role in transferring this tradition to the Islamic world. His ideas were later followed by polymath physicians such as Rhazes (Abu Bakr al-Razi, d. 925 AD), Avicenna (Ibn Sina, d. 1037 AD), and others who lived after him. His medical works were of great importance to the development of early Islamic medicine. Therefore, this study will attempt to illuminate this forgotten scholar's medical knowledge, the works he produced, and finally illustrate his influences on later Muslim physicians.

Droughts and societal change: The environmental context for the emergence of Islam in late Antique Arabia.

In Arabia, the first half of the sixth century CE was marked by the demise of Himyar, the dominant power in Arabia until 525 CE. Important social and political changes followed, which promoted the disintegration of the major Arabian polities. Here, we present hydroclimate records from around Southern Arabia, including a new high-resolution stalagmite record from northern Oman. These records clearly indicate unprecedented droughts during the sixth century CE, with the most severe aridity persisting between ~500 and 530 CE. We suggest that such droughts undermined the resilience of Himyar and thereby contributed to the societal changes from which Islam emerged.

Surgeons, Hernia Surgery and Informed Consent in the Seventeenth Century Ottoman Istanbul.

BACKGROUND: In the seventeenth century Ottoman Istanbul, especially Greek surgeons specialized in hernia surgery. Both Muslim and non-Muslim patients had signed contracts with surgeons in sharia courts before undergoing a surgery. In this study, we analyze these documents, which serve as informed consent in the Ottoman period, in detail. METHODS: We used Istanbul Sharia Court Registers (Istanbul Sicils) as the primary information source. We scanned a total of twenty nine registers dating back to the seventeenth century. In six of these registers, we determined a total of twenty one informed consents (known as riza senedi in Turkish literature) regarding hernia surgery and surgeons. Based on these data, we examined the surgeons and hernia surgeries, the fees received by surgeons, and the informed consent documents of the seventeenth-century Istanbul. RESULTS: In the scanned informed consents, we identified five male surgeons and twenty one patients. While four of the surgeons were Greek, one of them was Muslim. The contracts show that the patients were informed about possible complications before operations, and their permissions were obtained accordingly. The contracts also clearly state that a blood-money from the surgeons would not be requested if a patient dies during or after an operation. The cost of operations ranged between 500 and 2100 akce. CONCLUSIONS: The patient-physician relationship in Ottomans was seen as a business relationship. Medical processes were recorded in courts before treatment fees were paid. These court records had been a practice that protected the patients and the physicians in terms of criminal liability.

Nuevos datos para la historia del opio en la medicina islámica / New data for the history of opium in Islamic medicine

Este artículo menciona las principales investigaciones publicadas hasta el momento sobre la historia del uso terapéutico y recreativo del opio en el Islam clásico entre los siglos VII y XVII. Presenta la figura histórica del médico iraní ᶜEmād-al-Dīn Maḥmūd Šīrāzī (1515-1592) y describe el contenido general de su Resāla-ye afyūn [Tratado sobre el opio], principal tratado monográfico llegado hasta nosotros sobre los usos medicinales del opio en la civilización islámica. Más concretamente, la presente investigación versa sobre la historia del barš, el opiáceo más difundido y más usado como medicamento y droga recreativa por las poblaciones islámicas entre los siglos XII y XIX, y trata su composición, el origen y significado de su nombre y las fuentes citadas por ᶜEmād-al-Dīn al hablar de él. Asimismo, traza el proceso de transmisión de conocimientos sobre este opiáceo desde Galeno hacia los autores árabes de los siglos XII y XIII y desde estos hacia la medicina del Irán safaví del siglo XVI, y analiza su historia en los círculos médicos árabes e iraníes de los siglos XII al XVI. Se concluye que la Resāla-ye afyūn supone un significativo avance en lo referente a los usos medicinales del barš respecto a los conocimientos de los médicos árabes (AU)

New insights into early medieval Islamic cuisine: Organic residue analysis of pottery from rural and urban Sicily.

Sicily, during the 9th-12th century AD, thrived politically, economically, and culturally under Islamic political rule and the capital of Palermo stood as a cultural and political centre in the Mediterranean Islamic world. However, to what extent the lifeways of the people that experienced these regimes were impacted during this time is not well understood, particularly those from lesser studied rural contexts. This paper presents the first organic residue analysis of 134 cooking pots and other domestic containers dating to the 9th -12th century in order to gain new insights into the culinary practices during this significant period. Ceramics from three sites in the urban capital of Palermo and from the rural town of Casale San Pietro were analysed and compared. The multi-faceted organic residue analysis identified a range of commodities including animal products, vegetables, beeswax, pine and fruit products in the ceramics, with a complex mixing of resources observed in many cases, across all four sites and ceramic forms. Alongside the identification of commodities and how they were combined, new light has been shed on the patterning of resource use between these sites. The identification of dairy products in calcite wares from the rural site of Casale San Pietro and the absence of dairy in ceramics from the urban centre of Palermo presents interesting questions regarding the role of rural sites in food consumption and production in Islamic Sicily. This is the first time organic residue analysis of ceramics has been used to explore foodways in a medieval multi-faith society and offers new pathways to the understanding of pottery use and resources that were prepared, consumed and combined, reflecting cuisine in different socio-economic environments within the pluralistic population of medieval Sicily.

Beyond faith: Biomolecular evidence for changing urban economies in multi-faith medieval Portugal.

OBJECTIVES: During the Middle Ages, Portugal witnessed unprecedented socioeconomic and religious changes under transitioning religious political rule. The implications of changing ruling powers for urban food systems and individual diets in medieval Portugal is poorly understood. This study aimed to elucidate the dietary impact of the Islamic and Christian conquests. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Radiocarbon dating, peptide mass fingerprinting (ZooMS) and stable isotope analysis (δ13 C, δ15 N) of animal (n = 59) and human skeletal remains (n = 205) from Muslim and Christian burials were used to characterize the diet of a large historical sample from Portugal. A Bayesian stable isotope mixing model (BSIMM) was used to estimate the contribution of marine protein to human diet. RESULTS: Early medieval (8-12th century), preconquest urban Muslim populations had mean (±1SD) values of -18.8 ± 0.4 ‰ for δ13 C 10.4 ± 1 ‰ for δ15 N, indicating a predominantly terrestrial diet, while late medieval (12-14th century) postconquest Muslim and Christian populations showed a greater reliance on marine resources with mean (±1SD) values of -17.9 ± 1.3‰ for δ13 C and 11.1 ± 1.1‰ for δ15 N. BSIMM estimation supported a significant increase in the contribution of marine resources to human diet. DISCUSSION: The results provide the first biomolecular evidence for a dietary revolution that is not evidenced in contemporaneous historical accounts. We find that society transitioned from a largely agro-pastoral economy under Islamic rule to one characterized by a new focus on marine resources under later Christian rule. This economic change led to the naissance of the marine economy that went on to characterize the early-modern period in Portugal and its global expansion.

History of Islamic Medical Schools in Turkey's Territory

In today's political borders of the Republic of Turkey, there exist very old institutions that train physicians according to Islamic medical science. In this study, 19 health institutions whose locations have been determined and documents finalized were approached in a chronological order and classified according to the historical periods: XIIth and XIIIth centuries (Seljukian period)-10, XIVth century (Ilkhanate dominion)-1, and XVth-XVIIth centuries (Ottoman period)-8 institutions. Some of them have a history of 900 years (Konya Mâristan-i Atik, 1113; and Mardin Eminüddin Bimaristani, 1122). In addition, some are in the form of a medical madrasah and an application hospital (Kayseri, 1206; Sivas, 1217). In these institutions, great masters of Islamic medicine (Razi, Fârâbî, Bîrûnî, Ibni Sina) and ancient authorities (Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Aretaeus, Galenos) were taught. These institutions had builders, rulers (sultan, melik) or mothers, wives, daughters, and sisters (the presence of female builders in these institutions attracted attention). During the Seljuk period, powerful viziers also built such institutions. These hospitals also provided free services which were considered as "charities" according to the Islamic religion. These institutions were financed by sources (shops, inns, Turkish baths, bridges, mills, vineyards, gardens, fields and annual taxes of many villages) that donated funds through the "foundation" method. Donations were made in the presence of the "kadi" (muslim judges) and many witnesses, with the written document "endowment." These foundations were not touched by subsequent monarchs. Payment of fees, daily expenses of the physicians, assistant personel and repairing of buildings was done by the board of trustees. Twelve of these institutions are still in use for public interest (polyclinic, museum, health museum, library, university, and education center). When modern medical schools (1827) and hospitals (1842) began to be established as of the XIXth century, these historic buildings were allocated to mental patients, while some were devastated by neglect. However, in the Republic period, they have been restored and used for health and educational purposes.

Did Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) have epilepsy? A neurological analysis.

INTRODUCTION: The Prophet of Islam is one of the several famous religious figures who allegedly suffered from epilepsy. Early Greek chronicler Theophanes was one of the first to mention that the revelations of The Prophet were episodes of epilepsy, sparking a debate that has continued to date. This argument, for the most part, was confined to historic literary writings only until it was quoted by some eminent neurologists of recent times. They suggested probable diagnosis of temporal lobe epilepsy, adding credibility to the historical claims. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Review of works of some prominent historians, orientalists, literati from previous twelve centuries, and recent neurologists who believed The Prophet to be epileptic was done. The resource material that influenced them to believe this was likewise examined. Other archived literature including Hadith, the primary resource material that provides detailed information about the day-to-day happenings in The Prophet's life with books on the life of The Prophet by orientalists and Muslim historians describing such features during revelations and other events, was scrutinized. Documentations of these events from all resources were compared and analyzed from a neurological perspective. RESULTS: The author on analysis found literature indicating faulty translations of the original Arabic text into Latin as one of the reason for misleading conclusions. Verbatim translations of Arabic phrases used symbolically have taken away the exact construal giving it a wrong perspective. Similarly, The Prophet's peri-revelation episodes as they appear in Hadith when evaluated from a neurological perspective suggest that The Prophet did not have epilepsy. CONCLUSION: A judicious analysis of the features on which the historians and literati based their suspicion to label The Prophet epileptic, provides little supportive evidence when analyzed from a neurological perspective. Without judicious analysis of clinical data chances of misdiagnosis tend to be fairly high.

A woman's grace: gender, imperialism and religion in Emily Keene's philanthropic activities in Morocco, 1873-1941.

Emily Keene (London 1849 - Tangier 1941) became a relevant figure in pre-colonial Moroccan history due to her involvement in British policy and to her philanthropic-medical initiatives during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Such prominence was closely linked with her marriage to the sheriff of Wazzan, a powerful spiritual and political figure. 'Grace', in a triple romantic, political and religious sense, was a defining feature of Keene's marriage and widowhood and explained that, despite her continuing adscription to Christian religion, British imperialism and Western science, she deployed a weakly hegemonic stand towards her country of adoption. This attitude distanced her from the 'civilizing mission' policy that set off in the mid-1880s and from the active proselytising and scientific supremacism of the British missionaries during the same period. After her husband's death in 1892, she showed a strong commitment towards (Western-style) Moroccan social and political emancipation, which she tried to promote in close association with a small circle of women friends and Quakers based in Tangiers. Emily Keene's is thus an excellent case study for exploring the interplay between gender, imperialism and religion in pre-colonial Morocco and also the connection between private life and public activity in 19th century women humanitarians.

Osteoarcheological and biomolecular evidence of leprosy from an 11-13th century CE Muslim cemetery in Europe (Orosháza, Southeast Hungary).

Orosháza site no. 10 (Southeast Hungary) contains the partially excavated archaeological remains of an 11-13th century CE Muslim merchant village and its cemetery located in close proximity to Christian villages of the same era. The skeleton of a young woman (grave no. 16) from the last phase of the cemetery use was identified with rhinomaxillary lesions associated with lepromatous leprosy. The right parietal bone also exhibited signs of cranial trauma, possibly caused by symbolic trepanation, a well-known ritual practice in the 9-11th century CE Carpathian Basin. The retrospective diagnosis of the disease was supported by ancient DNA analysis, as the samples were positive for Mycobacterium leprae aDNA, shown to be of genotype 3. Contrary to the general practice of the era, the body of the young female with severe signs of leprosy was interred among the regular graves of the Muslim cemetery in Orosháza, which may reflect the unique cultural background of the community.

Double inhumation in the Medieval Islamic Necropolis of Sahl ben Malik in Granada (Spain).

Despite the high mortality that have been associated with pregnancy and childbirth in past populations, few cases of the remains of pregnant women burials are described in the bioarchaeological reports. This paper is focused on the case of a double inhumation found in the Medieval Muslim Necropolis (11th to 15th centuries) of Sahl ben Malik in Granada (Spain). A complete skeleton of a woman and the skeletal remains of a full-term fetus located under the mother's left femur, were discovered in this burial. None of the evidence for the mother was decisive in determining the cause of death. However, evidence of physiological stress in the woman and possible gynecological complications may have contributed to the death of both individuals. The link between the individuals and their cause of death is examined, discussed and compared with similar archaeological records.

Exploring the roots of clinical trial methodology in medieval Islamic medicine.

There is a dominant opinion in the Western sources of history of medicine that the roots of modern clinical trials and methodology of experimental medicine first started in the Renaissance. However, this opinion has been disputed with the thorough study of the rich medical literature of the medieval Islamic era. In the current review, the roots of clinical trial methodology have been traced back to the medieval Islamic tradition and the contribution of Islamic scholars in this field is discussed. The importance of experimental versus theoretical reasoning, the need for a control group, a statistical approach to interpreting trial results, appreciation of uncertainty in medical practice, and the difference between human and animal trials all can be traced back to the rich medieval Islamic medical literature.

Contribution of Arabic Medicine and Pharmacy to the Development of Health Care Protection in Bosnia and Herzegovina - the First Part.

The time interval from the 9th to the 13th century remained known as the "Golden period of the Arab science", and a significant place among the taught sciences are occupied by Medicine and Pharmacy. In the history of medicine, Islamic medicine, also known as Arabic medicine, refers to the science of medicine developed in the Islamic Golden Age, and written in Arabic Arabs were able to use their cultural and natural resources and trade links to contribute to the strong development of pharmacy. After the collapse of the Arab rule, the Arab territorial expanses and cultural heritage were taken over by the Turks. Although scientific progress in the Turkish period slowed down due to numerous unfavorable political-economic and other circumstances, thanks to the Turks, Arab culture and useful Islamic principles expanded to the territory of our homeland of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Significant role in the transfer of Arabic medical and pharmaceutical knowledge was also attributed to the Sephardic Jews who, with their arrival, continued to perform their attar activities, which were largely based on Arab achievements. However, insufficiently elaborated, rich funds of oriental medical and pharmaceutical handwriting testify that Oriental science has nurtured in these areas as well, and that the Arab component in a specific way was intertwined with other cultures and traditions of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Islamic Medicine in the Middle Ages.

The Islamic culture flourished between the 9th and 13th centuries. Scholars from this era made significant contributions in mathematics, science and medicine. Caliphs and physicians built hospitals that provided universal care and the foundation for medical education. Physician-scientists made significant advances in medical care, surgery and pharmacology. Notable authorities include al-Razi (865-925 CE) who wrote the Kitab al-Hawi fi al-tibb (The Comprehensive Book on Medicine), a 23-volume textbook that provided the main medical curriculum for European schools into the 14th century. Ibn Sina (980-1037 CE), an extraordinary Persian polymath, wrote al Qanun fi al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine), an encyclopedic treatment of medicine that combined his own observations with medical information from Galen and philosophy from Aristotle. Mansur (1380-1422 CE) wrote the first color illustrated book on anatomy. Other important physicians compiled information on the use of medication from plants, advanced surgical techniques, including cataract extraction and studied physiology, including the pulmonary circulation. These books and ideas provided the basis for medical care in Europe during its recovery from the Dark Ages.

Using culture and psychology to counter the Taliban's violent narratives.

Scholars, politicians, and policy-makers have increasingly pointed to the role of narratives in recruiting militants and justifying violence, highlighting the need for counter-narratives that promote peace. However, few have offered concrete guidelines on how to construct counter-narratives. This exploratory study uses prototype theory from social psychology to analyse Taliban narratives written in Arabic on the historical figure Mahmud of Ghazni (971-1030), who is portrayed as a figure worthy of emulation. Key themes emerge from the Taliban's narratives: potential ingroup members are defined as Sunni Muslims who are committed to jihad; deviant Muslims must become Sunnis; non-Muslims must be converted and humiliated; and Taliban leaders should emulate Mahmud of Ghazni's attributes. Contrasting the Taliban's narratives of Mahmud of Ghazni with the historical record reveals themes that are culled empirically around which counter-narratives could be constructed.

Islamic Civilization in Spain - a Magnificient Example of Interaction and Unity of Religion and Science.

Islam and its followers had created a civilization that played very important role on the world stage for more than a thousand years. One of the most important specific qualities of the Islamic civilization is that it is a well-balanced civilization that brought together science and faith, struck a balance between spirit and matter and did not separate this world from the Hereafter. This is what distinguishes the Islamic civilization from other civilizations which attach primary importance to the material aspect of life, physical needs and human instincts, and attach greater attention to this world by striving to instantly satisfy desires of the flesh, without finding a proper place for God and the Hereafter in their philosophies and education systems. The Islamic civilization drew humankind closer to God, connected the earth and heavens, subordinated this world to the Hereafter, connected spirit and matter, struck a balance between mind and heart, and created a link between science and faith by elevating the importance of moral development to the level of importance of material progress. It is owing to this that the Islamic civilization gave an immense contribution to the development of global civilization. Another specific characteristic of the Islamic civilization is that it spread the spirit of justice, impartiality and tolerance among people. The result was that people of different beliefs and views lived together in safety, peace and mutual respect, and that mosques stood next to churches, monasteries and synagogues in the lands that were governed by Muslims. This stems primarily from the commandments of the noble Islam according to which nobody must be forced to convert from their religion and beliefs since freedom of religion is guaranteed within the Islamic order. The Islamic civilization in Spain encompasses many fields that left a profound imprint in the Iberian Peninsula and Europe. The cultural climate of Spain in the era of Muslim rule (711-1492) brought about a prospering of different aspects of science and culture. Numerous schools and libraries were established and books were procured due to which the majority of the people were literate. Literature and art flourished. Buildings were constructed and Islamic art with its specific qualities was cultivated. As a result of that movement, Cordoba became the civilization capital of both Spain and the West in general. Many schools were established in it, such as medical and technical schools in addition to the general education and other vocational schools. Hospitals, chemical plants and observatories were also built. The university in Cordoba was a beacon of thought, education and culture, and it made Cordoba the home of science and of a great number of scholars and scientists in medicine, pharmacy, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics and botany. Scholarly disciplines such as philosophy and logic were also studied and busy translation activities were underway. For that reason travelers and people in quest for knowledge and science from different European countries used to come to Cordoba. This scientific and civilizational movement was not limited to Cordoba alone, but also spread into other cities of Spain, such as Granada, Toledo and other cities under Islamic rule. Relevant historical sources state that young men from Europe, particularly from Italy and France, competed to enroll some of the Islamic universities in Andalusia. One of the students of the university in Cordoba was Gerbert, who later became known as Pope Sylvester II. He introduced science of mathematics and Arabic numerals in Italy. The same historical sources also read that Europe was acquainted with Aristotle's manuscripts via the city of Toledo which was a center of bustling translation work from the Arabic into the Latin language. It was in Toledo that many works of Plato and Galen were translated, as were the philosophy manuscripts by Ibn Sina, al-Farabi, Ibn Tufayl, Ibn Bajjah and Ibn Rushd, and the medical manuscripts by Ibn Sina and al-Razi. These manuscripts quickly spread all over Europe and became a mandatory literature at great European universities. Ibn Sina's Al-Qanun fi al-tibb was considered the fundamental reference book in studies of medicine in Europe for nearly six centuries and was called The Canon of Medicine. This paper cites numerous examples of interaction and unity of religion and science in the times when Islamic culture and civilization flourished in the Iberian Peninsula, the era that lasted for almost eight centuries.